Below are some papers that you should read. To be clear - some of these papers may describe tools that no longer exist, but the concepts of the papers are the foundation for most subsequent research.
How do shotgun proteomics algorithms identify proteins (pubmed)
Computational mass spectrometry-based proteomics (pubmed)
Peptide/Spectrum Matching
Foundational Papers
Sequest and database matching (link). Good explanation of matching candidate sequences to a spectrum.
Dancik paper (pubmed) This paper puts forth basic concepts to understand and explore spectra: the offset frequency function, self-convolution, spectra represented as graphs, de novo sequencing.
Error Models
Foundational Papers
PeptideProphet (pubmed) - Identifying true from false matches is a rigorous and statistically justified way.
Decoy Databases (pubmed) – An abstraction of the concepts from the PeptideProphet paper. This method has become popular due to the easy implementation and clear concept.
The Protein Inference Problem (pubmed) - this paper describes why bottom-up proteomics has difficulty in unambiguously identifying proteins.
Parsimony (pubmed) - one of the frequently used criteria to help roll-up peptides into proteins.
Quantitation
Foundational Papers
Matching MS1 features across datasets (pubmed) - This paper describes matching MS1 features by accurate mass and retention time. The popular MaxQuant match-between-runs and all other related techniques are a reimplementation of this original method.
Isobaric labeling (pubmed) - this paper describes how to multiplex different experiments into one run using a special labeling technique.